African religions, religious beliefs and practices of the peoples of Africa. It should be noted that any attempt to generalize about the nature of “African religions” risks wrongly implying that there is homogeneity among all African cultures. In fact, Africa is a vast continent encompassing both geographic variation and tremendous cultural diversity. Each of the more than 50 modern countries that occupy the continent has its own particular history, and each in turn comprises numerous ethnic groups with different languages and unique customs and beliefs. African religions are as diverse as the continent is varied. Nevertheless, long cultural contact, in degrees ranging from trade to conquest, has forged some fundamental commonalities among religions within subregions, allowing for some generalizations to be made about the distinguishing features of religions indigenous to Africa. (With the exception of the influence of Christianity on New Religious Movements in Africa, religions that were introduced to Africa from elsewhere, such as Islam and Christianity, are not covered in this article.)
Worldview And Divinity
No single body of religious beliefs and practices can be identified as African. It is possible, however, to identify similarities in worldviews and ritual processes across geographic and ethnic boundaries. Generally speaking, African religions hold that there is one creator God, the maker of a dynamic universe. Myths of various African peoples relate that, after setting the world in motion, the Supreme Being withdrew, and he remains remote from the concerns of human life. According to a myth of the Dinka of South Sudan, God withdrew from the world after the first woman lifted her pestle to pound millet and struck the sky. The story, which is found in many traditions across the continent, explains that, although this withdrawal introduced toil, sickness, and death, it freed humans from the constraints of God’s immediate control.
Despite the general belief in a Supreme Being, cults to the “high God” are notably absent from many African religions; prayers of petition or sacrificial offerings are directed toward secondary divinities, who are messengers and intermediaries between the human and sacred realms. In West Africa, among the Asante of Ghana, for example, elders regularly pour libations and offer prayers to Nyame, the Creator, giving thanks and seeking blessing. The most significant aspect of Asante ritual life, however, is the veneration of matrilineal ancestors, who are considered the guardians of the moral order. According to the mythology of the Dogon of Mali, the Creator, Amma, brought the world into existence by mixing the primordial elements with the vibration of his spoken word, though the principal cult is directed to the Nommo, primordial beings and first ancestors, rather than to Amma.
In Nigeria the Yoruba hold that the Almighty Creator, Olorun, oversees a pantheon of secondary divinities, the orisha. Devotion to the orisha is active and widespread, but Olorun has neither priests nor cult groups. Similarly, in the Great Lakes region of East Africa, the Supreme Being, Mulungu, is thought to be omnipresent but is sought only in prayers of last resort; clan divinities are appealed to for intervention in most human affairs. Among the Nuer people of South Sudan as well as the Dinka, God is addressed in prayers of petition only after recourse to the secondary divinities has been exhausted.
Ritual And Religious Specialists
African religiousness is not a matter of adherence to a doctrine but is concerned with supporting fecundity and sustaining the community. African religions emphasize maintaining a harmonious relationship with the divine powers, and their rituals attempt to harness cosmic powers and channel them for good. Ritual is the means by which a person negotiates responsible relationships with other members of the community, with the ancestors, with the spiritual forces of nature, and with the gods.
The cults of the divinities are visible in the many shrines and altars consecrated in their honour. Shrines and altars are generally not imposing or even permanent structures and can be as insubstantial as a small marker in a private courtyard. Right relations with the divinities are maintained through prayers, offerings, and sacrifices, especially blood sacrifices. The shedding of blood in ritual sacrifice, which is believed to release the vital force that sustains life, precedes most ceremonies in which blessings are sought from the ancestors or divinities.
Ancestors also serve as mediators by providing access to spiritual guidance and power. Death is not a sufficient condition for becoming an ancestor. Only those who lived a full measure of life, cultivated moral values, and achieved social distinction attain this status. Ancestors are thought to reprimand those who neglect or breach the moral order by troubling the errant descendants with sickness or misfortune until restitution is made. When serious illness strikes, therefore, it is assumed that the ultimate cause is interpersonal and social conflict; serious illness is thus a moral dilemma as much as a biological crisis.
Ritual often marks a transition between physiological stages of life (such as puberty or death) and a change in social status (as from child to adult). Rites of passage are natural occasions for initiation, a process of socialization and education that enables the novice to assume the new social role. Initiation also involves the gradual cultivation of knowledge about the nature and use of sacred power. The Sande secret society of the Mande-speaking peoples is an important example, because its religious vision and political power extend across Liberia, Sierra Leone, Côte d’Ivoire, and Guinea. The Sande initiate girls by teaching them domestic skills and s£xual etiquette, as well as the religious significance of female power and womanhood.
The society’s sacred mask of the spirit Sowo is an iconographic depiction of the association of women and water spirits and attests to the creative power of both. (Masks are an important part of ritual in many African religions; they often represent ancestors, culture heroes, gods, and cosmic dynamics or the cosmic order.) Among the mask’s most striking features are the coils of flesh at the neck, representing concentric rings of water from which women, initially water spirits themselves, first emerged. The neck coils function like the halo in Western art, signifying the wearer as human in form but divine in essence.
Circumcision and clitoridectomy are common and widespread rites of initiation. Although the surgical removal of the clitoris and parts of the labia minora is more radical and more dangerous than male circumcision, both forms of genital mutilation are understood to be important means by which gender is culturally defined. Some cultures maintain that genital surgery removes all vestiges of androgyny, as the anatomical parts correlating with the opposite s£x are cut away. Cosmogonic myths justify the surgery as reiterating primordial acts that promoted fecundity; the myths thus define the sacred status of s£x and fertility.
Possession trance is the most dramatic and intimate contact that occurs between devotee and divinity. In most cases possession is actively sought, induced through the ritual preparation of the participant. Techniques that facilitate this altered state of consciousness range from inhaling vapours of medicinal preparations to rhythmic chanting, drumming, and dancing. This practice is sometimes reserved for religious specialists or priests, but among the devotees of the vodun (“divinities”) in Benin any initiate may become a receptacle of the gods. (Worship of the vodun is the original source of the Haitian religion of Vodou, which emerged as a syncretism of African, Roman Catholic, and Caribbean religious traditions by African slaves in Haiti.) The possessed are referred to as “horsemen,” because they are “mounted” by the spirits and submit to their control. Once the spirits have taken possession of a devotee, they establish a dialogue with their followers and answer questions.
Contact with the divinities is not always so direct; mediators between the human and divine realms are often necessary. Statuettes called “fetishes,” for example, are thought to give substance to invisible spiritual intermediaries. The Lobi of Burkina Faso carve such figures, which they call bateba. Once activated, the bateba can be invoked for aid but will die if neglected. Other intermediaries range from simple officiants at family altars to prophets, sacred kings, and diviners as well as certain priests, who are invested with powers that identify them more fully with the gods. Thus, for the Dogon the hogon, or spiritual leader, is not just a simple officiant but a sacred figure. His saliva is the source of the life-giving humidity, and his foot must not touch the earth directly or the ground will dry up. Such persons must submit to a number of ritual interdictions, because their ritual purity guarantees the order of the world.
The priests (both male and female) of the Yoruba thunder god Shango also experience possession trances, and they carry staffs to represent their access to Shango’s power. The staff depicts a woman kneeling in supplication, the symbolic two-headed ax extending from her head. The dark colour of the staff represents the trance itself, the hidden quality of spiritual knowledge. The sculptural depiction of Shango and other deities represents an important intersection between African art and religion.
A king’s power is often derived from the association of kingship with the forces of nature. In Swaziland the king is both a political and a ritual leader; the ritual renewal of his office is performed in conjunction with the summer solstice, when the celestial bodies are believed to be at their most powerful. During the rite of renewal, the king is purified and washed, and the water running off his body is thought to bring the first rains of the new season. Among the Yoruba a succession of kings were deified, and their histories were infused with myths about a royal pantheon of secondary divinities, such as Shango.
Diviners are ritual specialists who have mastered a technique for reading signs that communicate the will of the divinities. Thought to possess the gift of clairvoyance, diviners are believed to share in the power of insight usually reserved to the spirits. Divinatory ritual is the centrepiece of African religions, because it opens to all a channel of mediation with the gods. According to the Yoruba, 401 orisha “line the road to heaven,” and diviners identify among them the personal orisha to which an individual should appeal for guidance, protection, and blessing.
Witches are humans who are thought to possess intermediating power; they are called the “owners of the world” because their power to intercede surpasses that of the ancestors or the divinities. Their power is ambiguous and therefore dangerous, however, and must be controlled. The Gelede ritual masquerades of the Yoruba are one way to control witches. The rituals are lavish spectacles designed to represent and honour witches, the Great Mothers, who can bring wealth and fertility or disaster in the form of disease, famine, and barrenness. Throughout Africa misfortune is ultimately explained as the work of witchcraft, and witches are often seen as forces of evil, even if they are unaware of the ill they do. To combat the misfortunes brought about by witches, witch doctors and diviners are sought to provide protective medicines and amulets and to counteract the work of witches through exorcism and other rites.
Mythology
In African oral cultures, myths embody philosophical reflections, express values, and identify moral standards. Unlike Western mythology, African myths are not recounted as a single narrative story, nor is there any established corpus of myth. Instead, myths are embedded and transmitted in ritual practice.
African mythology commonly depicts the cosmos anthropomorphically. The human body is a microcosm that incorporates the same primordial elements and essential forces that make up the universe. Twinship is a predominant theme in much West African myth and ritual, because the human body is conceived as the twin of the cosmic body. According to the cosmogony shared by the Dogon, Bambara, and Malinke peoples of Mali, the primordial beings were twins, and twins therefore represent the ideal. Every individual shares in the structure of twinship. Following a birth, the placenta, which is believed to be the locus of one’s destiny and the soul’s twin, is buried in the family compound and watered for the first week of the child’s life. Among the Asante of Ghana, twins are assigned a status akin to that of living shrines; a sign of abundant fertility, they are deemed repositories of sacredness. For the Ndembu of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, by contrast, twins represent an excess of fertility more characteristic of the animal world than the human, and rituals are undertaken to protect the community from this anomalous condition.
The trickster is a prevalent type of mythic character in African mythology. Tricksters overturn convention and are notorious for pursuing their insatiable appetites and shameless lusts, even at the price of disaster. Although the trickster introduces disorder and confusion into the divine plan, he also paves the way for a new, more dynamic order. To the Fon of Benin, Legba is such a trickster. He is a troublemaker who disrupts harmony and sows turmoil, but he is revered as a transformer and not viewed as evil. Like other tricksters, Legba presides over divination. Called the “linguist,” he translates for humans the otherwise cryptic messages of Mawu, the Supreme Being. Tricksters thus communicate an important paradox: the cosmos, though grounded in a divinely ordained order, is characterized by constant change.
New Religions, Independent Churches, And Prophetic Movements
Religious vision and fervour, combined with the desire for political self-determination, have inspired a variety of New Religious Movements throughout Africa. Such movements proliferated in sub-Saharan Africa in the wake of European colonialism as one response of Africans to the loss of cultural, economic, and political control. Independent, or indigenous, churches arose largely in reaction to European Christian missions and played a significant role in the postcolonial struggle for national independence. At the end of the 20th century, independent churches constituted more than 15 percent of the total Christian population of sub-Saharan Africa.
In contrast to the indigenous religious systems of Africa, which are generated and sustained by the community, Christian prophetic movements are organized around an individual. They are like indigenous African religions in that they are preoccupied with healing. Prophets are considered charged by God with the task of purifying the people and struggling against witchcraft. Public confessions, exorcisms, and purifying baptisms are dominant features. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Simon Kimbangu inaugurated a healing revival in 1921 that drew thousands of converts to Christianity. Kimbangu’s powerful ministry was viewed as a threat by Belgian colonial authorities, who arrested him, but his imprisonment only stirred the nationalist fervour of his followers. The Kimbanguist Church survived and was eventually recognized by the state, and in 1969 it was admitted to the World Council of Churches. In the late 20th century the church had more than four million adherents.
Another prophetic movement, the Harris movement, was one of the first to receive the sanction and support of the governments of Western Africa. Its founder, William Wadé Harris, was a prophet-healer who claimed that the archangel Gabriel visited him while he was in prison for participating in a political revolt in his native Liberia. After his release Harris moved to neighbouring Côte d’Ivoire (where the European Christian missions had not been very successful) in order to lead his own vigorous evangelical campaign. His followers would establish a number of independent Harrist churches in Western Africa.
In contrast, neotraditional movements retain elements of indigenous African belief and ritual within the context of Christian liturgy. These syncretic religious movements incorporated important aspects of African religious expression, such as the practice of secrecy characteristic of the Sande societies in Western Africa. They also adopted fundamental beliefs of indigenous religions, such as the reliance upon the intervention of ancestral spirits. An example is the Bwiti movement, which originated with the Fang of Gabon and fused traditional ancestral cults with Christian symbolism and theology and messianic prophetic leadership. Such new African churches have tried to sustain a sense of community and continuity, even amid rapid and dramatic social change.
Some scholars regard the new African religions as manifestations of social or religious protest—by-products of the struggle for political self-determination and the establishment of independent nation-states. The persistence and proliferation of indigenous religions suggest, however, that they possess the openness to experimentation and renewal that is necessary to enable Africans to accommodate the changing character and needs of their communities. These and all other African religions testify in their variety to the diversity and wealth of African culture and reveal the means by which the people of the continent make sense of the material and spiritual world around them.
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